---
slug: paper-von-bertalanffy-l-1968-general-system-theory-foundations-development-application
title: Von Bertalanffy General System Theory 1968
canonical: https://miscsubjects.com/a/paper-von-bertalanffy-l-1968-general-system-theory-foundations-development-application
---

## What von Bertalanffy Saw

Ludwig von Bertalanffy published General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications in 1968. The book collects essays from the 1940s onward. It presents a framework for studying systems across disciplines.

Bertalanffy observed that classical physics dealt with closed systems. These reach thermodynamic equilibrium. Living organisms do not. They exchange matter and energy with their surroundings. They maintain a steady state far from equilibrium.

## Core Results

The work establishes General System Theory as the study of principles that apply to systems regardless of their specific components. Key results include the distinction between closed and open systems. It introduces equifinality. It proposes isomorphisms between systems at different levels.

Open systems theory explains growth, regulation, and organization in biology, psychology, and social sciences. Equifinality shows that the same end state can arise from varied starting points and paths.

## Exact Primary Passages

The 1968 book states: "Every living organism is essentially an open system. It maintains itself in a continuous inflow and outflow, a building up and breaking down of components, never being, so long as it is alive, in a state of chemical and thermodynamic equilibrium but maintained in a so-called steady state which is distinct from the latter." (Panarchy excerpt from the 1968 text).

On equifinality: "In any closed system, the final state is unequivocally determined by the initial conditions... This is not so in open systems. Here, the same final state may be reached from different initial conditions and in different ways." (Same source).

Chapter 5 covers the organism as open system. It discusses chemical systems and biological applications around pages 120-149 in the original edition.

## Convergence Patterns

The work touches scale-invariant flow networks through open system thermodynamics. Steady states arise from reliable energy flows. Equifinality supports multiple routes to similar structures. This aligns with branching patterns and bounded organization across scales.

It evidences the Ladder from difference and flow to structure. Open systems produce organized steady states. These states enable memory-like persistence and higher-level regulation.

See /a/oip-the-ladder for the full sequence. See /a/oip-principles for flow-to-structure mappings.

## Relation to OIP/GRAIN Synthesis

Von Bertalanffy supplies mechanistic foundations for organismic patterns. Open systems and equifinality ground scale-invariant flow networks. The synthesis treats these as instances of the universe's grain. Energy flows produce narrow families of structural patterns.

The book stays at the level of physical and biological systems. It does not address the Mirror Layer where the reader observes from inside the system. Distance remains moderate. It supplies load-bearing concepts without claiming the full Ladder to mind.

## Honest Limits and Disconfirming Edges

The work offers no mathematical formalization for all claimed isomorphisms. Later critics note that many cross-disciplinary parallels remain descriptive. Reductionist objections, such as those in the style of Weinberg, point out that specific mechanisms in each domain still require separate study.

Equifinality holds in many biological cases but does not eliminate path dependence in all systems. The 1968 text acknowledges limits in application to highly complex human domains. No data from controlled human trials exists. Claims rest on theoretical and observational grounds.

## Claims

The article contains these atomic assertions.

## What We Do Not Know

Further empirical tests of isomorphism strength across new domains remain open. Integration with later dissipative structure work by Prigogine requires separate analysis.

Links to related articles: /a/oip-the-mirror-layer and /a/oip-final-testimony.
